[Airplane Flying Handbook] Night Operations Approaches and Landings

When approaching the airport to enter the traffic pattern and land, it is important that the runway lights and other airport lighting be identified as early as possible. If the airport layout is unfamiliar to the pilot, sighting of the runway may be difficult until very close-in due to the maze of lights observed in the area. The pilot should fly toward the rotating beacon until the lights outlining the runway are distinguishable. To fly a traffic pattern of proper size and direction, the runway threshold and runway-edge lights must be positively identified. Once the airport lights are seen, these lights should be kept in sight throughout the approach.

Distance may be deceptive at night due to limited lighting conditions. A lack of intervening references on the ground and the inability of the pilot to compare the size and location of different ground objects cause this. This also applies to the estimation of altitude and speed. Consequently, more dependence must be placed on flight instruments, particularly the altimeter and the airspeed indicator.

When entering the traffic pattern, allow for plenty of time to complete the VASI. before landing checklist. If the heading indicator contains a heading bug, setting it to the runway heading will be an excellent reference for the pattern legs.

Every effort should be made to maintain the recommended airspeeds and execute the approach and landing in the same manner as during the day. A low, shallow approach is definitely inappropriate during a night operation. The altimeter and VSI should be constantly cross-checked against the airplane's position along the base leg and final approach. A visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is an indispensable aid in establishing and maintaining a proper glidepath.

After turning onto the final approach and aligning the airplane midway between the two rows of runway-edge lights, the pilot should note and correct for any wind drift. Throughout the final approach, pitch and power should be used to maintain a stabilized approach. Flaps should be used the same as in a normal approach. Usually, halfway through the final approach, the landing light should be turned on. Earlier use of the landing light may be necessary because of "Operation Lights ON" or for local traffic considerations. The landing light is sometimes ineffective since the light beam will usually not reach the ground from higher altitudes. The light may even be reflected back into the pilot's eyes by any existing haze, smoke, or fog. This disadvantage is overshadowed by the safety considerations provided by using the "Operation Lights ON" procedure around other traffic.

The roundout and touchdown should be made in the same manner as in day landings. At night, the judgment of height, speed, and sink rate is impaired by the scarcity of observable objects in the landing area. The inexperienced pilot may have a tendency to round out too high until attaining familiarity with the proper height for the correct roundout. To aid in determining the proper roundout point, continue a constant approach descent until the landing lights reflect on the runway and tire marks on the runway can be seen clearly. At this point the roundout should be started smoothly and the throttle gradually reduced to idle as the airplane is touching down. During landings without the use of landing lights, the roundout may be started when the runway lights at the far end of the runway first appear to be rising higher than the nose of the airplane. This demands a smooth and very timely roundout, and requires that the pilot feel for the runway surface using power and pitch changes, as necessary, for the airplane to settle slowly to the runway. Blackout landings should always be included in night pilot training as an emergency procedure.

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[Airplane Flying Handbook] Night Operations Orientation and Navigation

Generally, at night it is difficult to see clouds and restrictions to visibility, particularly on dark nights or under overcast. The pilot flying under VFR must exercise caution to avoid flying into clouds or a layer of fog. Usually, the first indication of flying into restricted visibility conditions is the gradual disappearance of lights on the ground. If the lights begin to take on an appearance of being surrounded by a halo or glow, the pilot should use caution in attempting further flight in that same direction. Such a halo or glow around lights on the ground is indicative of ground fog. Remember that if a descent must be made through fog, smoke, or haze in order to land, the horizontal visibility is considerably less when looking through the restriction than it is when looking straight down through it from above. Under no circumstances should a VFR night-flight be made during poor or marginal weather conditions unless both the pilot and aircraft are certificated and equipped for flight under instrument flight rules (IFR).

The pilot should practice and acquire competency in straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, level turns, climbing and descending turns, and steep turns. Recovery from unusual attitudes should also be practiced, but only on dual flights with a flight instructor. The pilot should also practice these maneuvers with all the cockpit lights turned OFF. This blackout training is necessary if the pilot experiences an electrical or instrument light failure. Training should also include using the navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs.

In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, night cross- country flights do not present particular problems if preplanning is adequate, and the pilot continues to monitor position, time estimates, and fuel consumed. NAVAIDs, if available, should be used to assist in monitoring en route progress.

Crossing large bodies of water at night in single- engine airplanes could be potentially hazardous, not only from the standpoint of landing (ditching) in the water, but also because with little or no lighting the horizon blends with the water, in which case, depth perception and orientation become difficult. During poor visibility conditions over water, the horizon will become obscure, and may result in a loss of orientation. Even on clear nights, the stars may be reflected on the water surface, which could appear as a continuous array of lights, thus making the horizon difficult to identify.

Lighted runways, buildings, or other objects may cause illusions to the pilot when seen from different altitudes. At an altitude of 2,000 feet, a group of lights on an object may be seen individually, while at 5,000 feet or higher, the same lights could appear to be one solid light mass. These illusions may become quite acute with altitude changes and if not overcome could present problems in respect to approaches to lighted runways.

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[Airplane Flying Handbook] Night Operations Takeoff and Climb

Night flying is very different from day flying and demands more attention of the pilot. The most noticeable difference is the limited availability of outside visual references. Therefore, flight instruments should be used to a greater degree in controlling the airplane. This is particularly true on night takeoffs and climbs. The cockpit lights should be adjusted to a minimum brightness that will allow the pilot to read the instruments and switches and yet not hinder the pilot's outside vision. This will also eliminate light reflections on the windshield and windows.

After ensuring that the final approach and runway are clear of other air traffic, or when cleared for takeoff by the tower, the landing lights and taxi lights should be turned ON and the airplane lined up with the centerline of the runway. If the runway does not have centerline lighting, use the painted centerline and the runway- edge lights. After the airplane is aligned, the heading indicator should be noted or set to correspond to the known runway direction. To begin the takeoff, the brakes should be released and the throttle smoothly advanced to maximum allowable power. As the airplane accelerates, it should be kept moving straight ahead between and parallel to the runway-edge lights.

The procedure for night takeoffs is the same as for normal daytime takeoffs except that many of the runway visual cues are not available. Therefore, the flight instruments should be checked frequently during the takeoff to ensure the proper pitch attitude, heading, and airspeed are being attained. As the airspeed reaches the normal lift-off speed, the pitch attitude should be adjusted to that which will establish a normal climb. This should be accomplished by referring to both outside visual references, such as lights, and to the flight instruments.

After becoming airborne, the darkness of night often makes it difficult to note whether the airplane is getting closer to or farther from the surface. To ensure the airplane continues in a positive climb, be sure a climb is indicated on the attitude indicator, vertical speed indicator (VSI), and altimeter. It is also important to ensure the airspeed is at best climb speed.

Necessary pitch and bank adjustments should be made by referencing the attitude and heading indicators. It is recommended that turns not be made until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude.

Although the use of the landing lights provides help during the takeoff, they become ineffective after the airplane has climbed to an altitude where the light beam no longer extends to the surface. The light can cause distortion when it is reflected by haze, smoke, or fog that might exist in the climb. Therefore, when the landing light is used for the takeoff, it may be turned off after the climb is well established provided other traffic in the area does not require its use for collision avoidance.

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[Airplane Flying Handbook] Night Operations Starting, Taxiing, and Runup

After the pilot is seated in the cockpit and prior to starting the engine, all items and materials to be used on the flight should be arranged in such a manner that they will be readily available and convenient to use.

Extra caution should be taken at night to assure the propeller area is clear. Turning the rotating beacon ON, or flashing the airplane position lights will serve to alert persons nearby to remain clear of the propeller. To avoid excessive drain of electrical current from the battery, it is recommended that unnecessary electrical equipment be turned OFF until after the engine has been started.

After starting and before taxiing, the taxi or landing light should be turned ON. Continuous use of the landing light with r.p.m. power settings normally used for taxiing may place an excessive drain on the airplane's electrical system. Also, overheating of the landing light could become a problem because of inadequate airflow to carry the heat away. Landing lights should be used as necessary while taxiing. When using landing lights, consideration should be given to not blinding other pilots. Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas. If taxi lines are painted on the ramp or taxiway, these lines should be followed to ensure a proper path along the route.

The before takeoff and runup should be performed using the checklist. During the day, forward movement of the airplane can be detected easily. At night, the airplane could creep forward without being noticed unless the pilot is alert for this possibility. Hold or lock the brakes during the runup and be alert for any forward movement.

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[Airplane Flying Handbook] Preparation and Preflight

Night flying requires that pilots be aware of, and operate within, their abilities and limitations. Although careful planning of any flight is essential, night flying demands more attention to the details of preflight preparation and planning.

Preparation for a night flight should include a thorough review of the available weather reports and forecasts with particular attention given to temperature/dewpoint spread. A narrow temperature/dewpoint spread may indicate the possibility of ground fog. Emphasis should also be placed on wind direction and speed, since its effect on the airplane cannot be as easily detected at night as during the day.

On night cross-country flights, appropriate aeronautical charts should be selected, including the appropriate adjacent charts. Course lines should be drawn in black to be more distinguishable.

Prominently lighted checkpoints along the prepared course should be noted. Rotating beacons at airports, lighted obstructions, lights of cities or towns, and lights from major highway traffic all provide excellent visual checkpoints. The use of radio navigation aids and communication facilities add significantly to the safety and efficiency of night flying.

All personal equipment should be checked prior to flight to ensure proper functioning. It is very disconcerting to find, at the time of need, that a flashlight, for example, does not work.

All airplane lights should be turned ON momentarily and checked for operation. Position lights can be checked for loose connections by tapping the light fixture. If the lights blink while being tapped, further investigation to determine the cause should be made prior to flight.

The parking ramp should be examined prior to entering the airplane. During the day, it is quite easy to see stepladders, chuckholes, wheel chocks, and other obstructions, but at night it is more difficult. A check of the area can prevent taxiing mishaps.

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[Airplane Flying Handbook] Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids

The lighting systems used for airports, runways, obstructions, and other visual aids at night are other important aspects of night flying.

Lighted airports located away from congested areas can be identified readily at night by the lights outlining the runways. Airports located near or within large cities are often difficult to identify in the maze of lights. It is important not to only know the exact location of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able to identify these airports by the characteristics of their lighting pattern.

Aeronautical lights are designed and installed in a variety of colors and configurations, each having its own purpose. Although some lights are used only during low ceiling and visibility conditions, this discussion includes only the lights that are fundamental to visual flight rules (VFR) night operation.

It is recommended that prior to a night flight, and particularly a cross-country night flight, the pilot check the availability and status of lighting systems at the destination airport. This information can be found on aeronautical charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory. The status of each facility can be determined by reviewing pertinent Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).

A rotating beacon is used to indicate the location of most airports. The beacon rotates at a constant speed, thus producing what appears to be a series of light flashes at regular intervals. These flashes may be one or two different colors that are used to identify various types of landing areas. For example:

• Lighted civilian land airports—alternating white and green.
• Lighted civilian water airports—alternating white and yellow.
• Lighted military airports—alternating white and green, but are differentiated from civil airports by dual peaked (two quick) white flashes, then green.

Beacons producing red flashes indicate obstructions or areas considered hazardous to aerial navigation. Steady burning red lights are used to mark obstructions on or near airports and sometimes to supplement flashing lights on en route obstructions. High intensity flashing white lights are used to mark some supporting structures of overhead transmission lines that stretch across rivers, chasms, and gorges. These high intensity lights are also used to identify tall structures, such as chimneys and towers.

As a result of the technological advancements in aviation, runway lighting systems have become quite sophisticated to accommodate takeoffs and landings in various weather conditions. However, the pilot whose flying is limited to VFR only needs to be concerned with the following basic lighting of runways and taxiways.

The basic runway lighting system consists of two straight parallel lines of runway-edge lights defining the lateral limits of the runway. These lights are aviation white, although aviation yellow may be substituted for a distance of 2,000 feet from the far end of the runway to indicate a caution zone. At some airports, the intensity of the runway-edge lights can be adjusted to satisfy the individual needs of the pilot. The length limits of the runway are defined by straight lines of lights across the runway ends. At some airports, the runway threshold lights are aviation green, and the runway end lights are aviation red.

At many airports, the taxiways are also lighted. A taxiway-edge lighting system consists of blue lights that outline the usable limits of taxi paths.

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Posted By w3n-a to Airplane Flying Handbook at 1/01/2009 09:51:00 PM __._,_.___

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File - welcome.html

Table of Content Introduction to Flight Training Purpose of Flight Training Role of the FAA Role of the Pilot Examiner Role of the Flight Instructor Sources of Flight Training Practical Test Standards Flight Safety Practices Collision Avoidance Runway Incursion Avoidance Stall Awareness Use of Checklists Positive Transfer of Controls Ground Operations Visual Inspection Inside the Cockpit Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section Fuel and Oil Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes Engine and Propeller Cockpit Management Ground Operations Engine Starting Hand Propping Taxiing Before Takeoff Check After Landing Clear of Runway Parking Engine Shutdown Post-flight Securing and Servicing Basic Flight Maneuvers The Four Fundamentals Effects and Use of the Controls Feel of the Airplane Attitude Flying Integrated Flight Instruction Straight and Level Flight Trim Control Level Turns Climbs and Climbing Turns Normal Climb Best Rate of Climb Best Angle of Climb Descents and Descending Turns Partial Power Descent Descent at Minimum Safe Airspeed Glides Pitch and Power Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins Introduction Slow Flight Flight at Less than Cruise Airspeeds Flight at Minimum Controllable Airspeed Stalls Recognition of Stalls Fundamentals of Stall Recovery Use of Ailerons/Rudder in Stall Recovery Stall Characteristics Approaches to Stalls (Imminent Stalls) - Power On or Power Off Full Stalls Power Off Full Stalls Power On Secondary Stall Accelerated Stalls Cross Control Stall Elevator Trim Stall Spins Spin Procedures Entry Phase Incipient Phase Developed Phase Recovery Phase Intentional Spins Weight and Balance Requirements Takeoff and Departure Climbs General Terms and Definitions Prior to Takeoff Normal Takeoff Takeoff Roll Lift-Off Initial Climb Crosswind Takeoff Takeoff Roll Lift-Off Initial Climb Ground Effect on Takeoff Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb Takeoff Roll Lift-Off Initial Climb Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb Takeoff Roll Lift-Off Initial Climb Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure Noise Abatement Ground Reference Maneuvers Purpose and Scope Maneuvering By Reference to Ground Objects Drift and Ground Track Control Rectangular Course S-Turns Across a Road Turns Around a Point Elementary Eights Eights along a Road Eights Across a Road Eights Around Pylons Eights-On-Pylons (Pylon Eights) Airport Traffic Patterns Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations Standard Airport Traffic Patterns Approaches and Landings Normal Approach and Landing Base Leg Final Approach Use of Flaps Estimating Height and Movement Round-out (Flare) Touchdown After-Landing Roll Stabilized Approach Concept Intentional Slips Go-Around (Rejected Landings) Power Attitude Configuration Ground Effect Crosswind Approach and Landing Crosswind Final Approach Crosswind Round-out (Flare) Crosswind Touchdown Crosswind After-Landing Roll Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities Turbulent Air Approach and Landing Short-Field Approach and Landing Soft-Field Approach and Landing Power-Off Accuracy Approaches 90° Power-Off Approach 180° Power-Off Approach 360° Power-Off Approach Emergency Approaches and Landings (Simulated) Faulty Approaches and Landings Low Final Approach High Final Approach Slow Final Approach Use of Power High Round-out Late or Rapid Round-out Floating During Round-out Ballooning During Round-out Bouncing During Touchdown Porpoising Wheel-barrowing Hard Landing Touchdown in a Drift or Crab Ground Loop Wing Rising After Touchdown Hydroplaning Dynamic Hydroplaning Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning Viscous Hydroplaning Performance Maneuvers Performance Maneuvers Steep Turns Steep Spiral Chandelle Lazy Eight Night Operations Night Vision Night Illusions Pilot Equipment Airplane Equipment and Lighting Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids Preparation and Preflight Starting, Taxiing, and Run-up Takeoff and Climb Orientation and Navigation Approaches and Landings Night Emergencies Transition to Complex Airplanes High Performance and Complex Airplanes Wing Flaps Function of Flaps Flap Effectiveness Operational Procedures Controllable-Pitch Propeller Constant-Speed Propeller Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise Blade Angle Control Governing Range Constant-Speed Propeller Operation Turbo-charging Ground Boosting vs Altitude Turbocharging Operating Characteristics Heat Management Turbocharger Failure Over-boost Condition Low Manifold Pressure Retractable Landing Gear Landing Gear Systems Controls and Position Indicators Landing Gear Safety Devices Emergency Gear Extension Systems Operational Procedures Preflight Takeoff and Climb Approach and Landing Transition Training Transition to Multiengine Airplanes Multiengine Flight General Terms and Definitions Operation of Systems Propellers Propeller Synchronization Fuel Cross-feed Combustion Heater Flight Director / Autopilot Yaw Damper Alternator / Generator Nose Baggage Compartment Anti-Icing / Deicing Performance and Limitations Weight and Balance Ground Operation Normal and Crosswind Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb Level Off and Cruise Normal Approach and Landing Crosswind Approach and Landing Short-Field Takeoff and Climb Short-Field Approach and Landing Go-Around Rejected Takeoff Engine Failure After Lift-Off Engine Failure During Flight Engine Inoperative Approach and Landing Engine Inoperative Flight Principles Slow Flight Stalls Power-Off Stalls (Approach and Landing) Power-On Stalls (Takeoff and Departure) Spin Awareness Engine Inoperative - Loss of Directional Control Demonstration Multiengine Training Considerations Transition to Tail-wheel Airplanes Tail-wheel Airplanes Landing Gear Taxiing Normal Takeoff Roll Takeoff Crosswind Takeoff Short-Field Takeoff Soft-Field Takeoff Touchdown After-Landing Roll Crosswind Landing Crosswind After-Landing Roll Wheel Landing Short-Field Landing Soft-Field Landing Ground Loop Transition to Turbo-propeller Powered Airplanes General Gas Turbine Engine Turboprop Engines Turboprop Engine Types Fixed Shaft Split-Shaft / Free Turbine Engine Reverse Thrust and Beta Range Operations Turboprop Airplane Electrical Systems Operational Considerations Training Considerations Transition to Jet Powered Airplanes General Jet Engine Basics Operating the Jet Engine Jet Engine Ignition Continuous Ignition Fuel Heaters Setting Power Thrust to Thrust Lever Relationship Variation of Thrust with RPM Slow Acceleration of the Jet Engine Jet Engine Efficiency Absence of Propeller Effect Absence of Propeller Slipstream Absence of Propeller Drag Speed Margins Recovery from Over-speed Conditions Mach Buffet Boundaries Low Speed Flight Stalls Drag Devices Thrust Reversers Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb V-Speeds Pre-Takeoff Procedures Takeoff Roll Rotation and Lift-Off Initial Climb Jet Airplane Approach and Landing Landing Requirements Landing Speeds Significant Differences The Stabilized Approach Approach Speed Glide-path Control The Flare Touchdown and Rollout Emergency Procedures Emergency Situations Emergency Landings Types of Emergency Landings Psychological Hazards Basic Safety Concepts General Attitude and Sink Rate Control Terrain Selection Airplane Configuration Approach Terrain Types Confined Areas Trees (Forest) Water (Ditching) and Snow Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine) Emergency Descents In-Flight Fire Engine Fire Electrical Fires Cabin Fire Flight Control Malfunction / Failure Total Flap Failure Asymmetric (Split) Flap Loss of Elevator Control Landing Gear Malfunction Systems Malfunctions Electrical System Pitot-Static System Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications Door Opening In Flight Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC General Recognition Maintaining Airplane Control Attitude Control Turns Climbs Descents Combined Maneuvers Transition to Visual Flight

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